How Trauma Affects Health and Fitness: Tips from

If you have been involved in a motor vehicle accident, one of the most important decisions you can make is whether or not to seek medical treatment. If you are injured, or it’s your first time being in an accident, you may be concerned about the cost of medical bills and medical treatment.

If you have a traumatic experience, you may think it has an immediate effect on your health. In fact, all traumatic events can lead to health problems. However, it is important to recognise the importance of your own role in the way you respond to the trauma. Your perception of the event determines how you act and how you cope, and ultimately how your physical, mental and emotional well-being will be affected.

Eileen Fisher, who is known for her high-quality, well-made clothes and accessories, has great tips for surviving—and thriving—during a trauma. The best thing is that these tips are ones that any woman can follow, even if she thinks she might be pregnant. For example, she recommends taking a shower with warm water, as opposed to cold water, since hot water is known for being good for reducing swelling.

A few years back, we had the idea for a trauma-related piece.

We’d observed consumers who checked out as they ate on numerous occasions. Alternatively, you can turn off your computer during your workout.

Or the one who became enraged when we offered a seemingly simple nutritional recommendation. (For example, “Think about eating gently today.”)

Or who were frightened. Disappeared. I became agitated. I became paralyzed.

Or appeared helpless in the face of overwhelming cravings to eat, restrict, purge, binge drink, or engage in a range of other harmful activities.

We looked for individual explanations as their coaches. 

We were able to locate them.

Childhoods marred by adults who were either abusive or absent. Assault against a woman. Neglecting one’s emotions. Abuse of drugs and alcohol. Service in the military. Displacement. Miscarriages. Natural calamities. Loss and grief.

(Check out the video below to hear the writers discuss this article in further depth.) If not, please scroll above the video player or go to the next section by clicking here.)

 

With Krista Scott-Dixon and Kate Solovieva from the PN coach roundtable, Robin Beier discusses how trauma affects health and fitness.

But, now more than ever, it’s clear that any type of trauma can have a negative impact on a client’s progress.

Racism, homophobia, poverty, sexism, ableism, transphobia, and fatphobia are all issues that need to be addressed.

Communities and neighborhoods that are unsafe. Power and resources are in short supply.

Partners, police, workplaces, health institutions, schools, and the government—violence, abuse, and bullying from those who are supposed to protect them.

Uncertainty in the economy. A worldwide pandemic.

It’s no surprise that many of us struggle to balance our food, exercise, and self-care.

Surprisingly, we still retain the ability to adapt and thrive.

To that end, the purpose of this article is to provide insights and methods that you, as a nutrition, fitness, or health coach, can utilize to adequately support clients who are dealing with trauma.

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This article is about nutrition and physical activity. It is, however, far larger than that.

As humans, we have a responsibility to contribute to making the world a better place. And to stand up for all persons who have been hurt by hardship, injustice, or abuse.

At, we care about our customers’ “deep health” as well as their “physical health,” fostering all of the aspects of who they are. 

This is due to the fact that each domain of profound health—physical, emotional, mental, environmental, relational, and existential—influences the others.

And what about trauma? It can have detrimental and long-term consequences on any of these categories, making it difficult for clients to make real health and fitness gains.

That’s when you enter the picture.

It is not within your scope of service as a nutrition, fitness, or health coach to question clients directly about trauma.

However, customers will occasionally tell you about painful events. Alternatively, they may do or say things that don’t appear to add up.

Understanding how trauma emerges can help explain why clients do strange or seemingly unhelpful things like overeat when they’re trying to lose weight or become healthier.

Or, even though they take excellent care of everyone else, they disregard their own health and well-being.

Because trauma may happen to anyone and is more common than many people realize, you should know how to handle and support these clients.

Even in the midst of excruciating pain, these people can grow. Humans are incredibly resilient creatures.

Being a trauma-informed coach can benefit you in the following ways: 

• comprehend people and their issues, resulting in more successful and productive coaching partnerships
• comprehend why certain clients act “irrationally” or have trouble with their food and exercise habits
• Identify solutions that can assist customers in getting out of a bind.
• It is part of being a good person to avoid re-traumatizing others (and is probably smart for your business, too)
• Recognize when a client requires more help to go through trauma, such as a referral to a therapist.

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What exactly is trauma?

Trauma is defined as an event that exceeds our current resources and ability to deal.

What is the difference between trauma and stress?

When we are under any kind of stress, our bodies go into alarm mode. In a typical circumstance, we would eventually heal and return to our baseline, if not stronger and more resilient.

With trauma, however, we are unable to go through all of the processes required to recover because the stressor is so powerful. We wind up in a worse situation than when we started.

Trauma-inducing pressures can arise from a variety of sources in our life.

There are various sorts of trauma, each with varied degrees of severity, but all of them can have an impact on our health, well-being, and ability to care for ourselves.

Trauma with a capital T

Most people identify the word “trauma” with situations such as sexual assault, living or serving in a war zone, physical violence, or being involved in a vehicle accident.

Psychologists refer to such events as “big-T trauma” since they are exceedingly destructive and objectively dreadful.

People usually know if they’ve been through this form of trauma, even if they aren’t aware of the long-term consequences.

Trauma of a minor nature

Traumatic incidents can also appear to be “no big issue” on the surface, but they leave a deep and lasting memory.

The more common indignities, insecurities, bruises, and paper cuts of life are referred to as little-t trauma.

• It could be something “insignificant” that occurs at a vulnerable time, such as a parent who was primarily absent during your teen years.
• It could also be anything egregiously unjust or infuriating that occurs on a regular basis, such as systemic racism or homophobia.

Even minor trauma can have long-term consequences. Many people go through it without ever realizing it’s called “trauma.”

Trauma in the group

Trauma can also be experienced in a group setting.

Collective trauma is a psychological consequence that undermines a society’s or group’s basis. 1

Bombings, natural catastrophes, wars, famines, and pandemics are just a few examples of events that can cause widespread trauma.

Violence, abuse, and indignities done against a specific community can also cause collective trauma. This is something that can happen over time.

In several countries, including as Canada, the United States, and Australia, the imposition of colonization and residential schools on indigenous people has had long-term consequences.

People who live through the fall of a political regime or in a general state of increased violence awareness—for example, in a military state where they see guns on a daily basis—experience collective trauma.

(People may react to this form of trauma differently than they do to individual trauma.) Even if it appears to be less personal, trauma is trauma.)

Importantly, we do not have to personally experience trauma to be affected.

Consider the following scenario:

• Even if their child does not attend the school where the incident occurred, parents may be terrified following a school shooting.
• People alive in 2023 may not have directly experienced slavery, but the social wounds of slavery are still present.

This type of trauma can linger in our collective memory for years, and the meaning we derive from these recollections often shapes society.

Trauma that spans generations

Trauma can be handed down down the generations in a variety of ways.

For starters, if a parent has been through trauma, their conduct toward their child may shift. 

The cycle may be perpetuated if a parent or caregiver repeats the traumatizing behavior they witnessed.

Or they may be so engrossed in their own coping mechanisms—such as alcohol abuse—that they are unable to provide materially and/or emotionally for their child.

Clients who have experienced intergenerational trauma may tell you that their first eating troubles began when they were young and were terrified, alone, little, angry, or otherwise affected by what was going on in their families.

Second, trauma can be handed down through the generations through a process known as transgenerational epigenetics.

Trauma can alter the packaging of our DNA, and consequently the expression of our genes.

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The most well-known example comes from study on Holocaust survivors’ descendants, which revealed genetic alterations in both parents and children. 9,10 Other studies have linked the legacy of slavery to an increased risk of stroke in African-Americans residing in the southeastern United States. 11

Similar effects have been seen in other underprivileged communities (as well as in animal research), although this is still a new field of study. 12

Trauma is not a “fact-based” event, but rather a “perception-based” and “response-based” event.

Regardless of how significant or minor an event or scenario appears, a person’s subjective experience of it decides whether it was traumatic.

Assume Fatima and Sonal both burned themselves as children on hot stoves.

Neither of them remembers anything about it, but they both had identical reactions: Mom was terrified. To treat the burn, they had to travel to the hospital.

The encounter was not distressing for Fatima. She was sad and afraid at the time, but she recovered in the days that followed. It left no more of an impression on her than a skinned knee on the playground.

The incident was terrible for Sonal. Her mom was always anxious and working hard to make ends meet, and she already felt vulnerable because her father wasn’t there. Though she rarely remembers it anymore, the burn left an indelible impact on her mind.

Sonal is now apprehensive about cooking as an adult. She is baffled as to why.

She can tell you stories about why she doesn’t cook. She’s occupied. The stove just appears to be… complex. Or something like that.

The context, not the burn, was what made the event horrific.

Trauma is definitely more common than statistics suggest.

But here’s what we do know: over 60% of men and 50% of women have had at least one major traumatic event in their lives. 13

Sexual assault and child abuse are more common among women, but physical assault, combat, accidents, and disasters are more common among men. 14 Men are also more likely to be there when someone dies or is injured.

Privilege and power provide security.

Persons from marginalized groups, such as racialized minorities, immigrants and refugees, LGBTQI* people, people living in poverty, and so on, are far more likely to be traumatized.

However, many persons who have experienced big-T trauma do not report it. Certainly, most persons who have experienced little trauma do not.

What do you think they’d say?

• “Can you please report my coworker for being a racist or sexist jerk?”
• “Can I report my mother for being emotionally inaccessible to me at a critical juncture in my life?”
• “I’d want to report that I only go out during daylight hours to avoid being harassed?”
• “Can I report a heated, caustic flow of humiliation as a result of anything someone said, even though they weren’t talking to or about me?”

These kinds of events are simply “how things are” for many people. “We didn’t even have a word for it,” famous feminist Gloria Steinem said of sexual harassment and assault in the 1960s and 1970s. It was dubbed ‘life.’”

Many of my clients—and, if you’re a coach, many of yours—are struggling with the impacts of trauma.

This can have an impact on their diet and exercise habits, as well as their capacity to manage their emotions.

Trauma has an impact on the way we eat, exercise, and live.

Despite the fact that trauma expresses itself in diverse ways in different people, we tend to see common themes.

Our brains are altered as a result of trauma.

Trauma frequently has an impact on how a person acts, identifies themselves, and communicates with others.

Here’s how that might play out in client interactions:

They have a hard time distinguishing between emotions, needs, and physical sensations. When you ask, “How do you know when you’re hungry?” or “Does that hurt?” or “How are you feeling?” they may respond, “I’m not sure.” 15

They don’t appear to have a good memory. If you ask them questions such, “What was food like when you were a kid?” or “What time did you eat dinner as a kid?” they may not recall. They “forget” about their everyday coaching routines.

They frequently become stuck or immobilized. The “freeze reflex” renders us immobile. Clients may claim that they are unable to act, that they avoid situations, and/or that they are powerless. “I don’t know what occurred, but I just started eating… ”

Their self-perception is quite negative. “I despise myself. I’m a loser. I’m condemned to fail. I can’t seem to get anything right.” They find it difficult to believe that anything might be different or better.

They have a stronger response than anticipated. Fight/flight/freeze responses are triggered by seemingly innocuous interactions. Assume you advise your client to include protein in their breakfast. In turn, they:

• Become extremely enraged (fight)
• Remove yourself from the discourse (flight)
• Become extremely silent, if not completely disengaged (freeze)

You may be surprised by what appears to be an exaggeration, yet fear and danger are deeply rooted human responses.

They are continuously trying to make you happy. This client might agree to every dietary recommendation you make. It eventually becomes evident that they are not putting things into practice. It’s just easier to agree with your ideas rather than explain why they won’t work for them.

This is referred as as fawning. Victims of abuse frequently acquire and implement this strategy: they try to protect themselves from additional pain by being as inconspicuous and acceptable as possible.

A closer look at Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Traumatic situations can sometimes lead to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, or PTSD. We don’t know why, but PTSD is more common in women16, military veterans17, and persons who have already experienced one or more traumas. 18

PTSD expresses itself in a variety of ways:

1. It has the potential to disrupt our sense of time, place, and space. 

This alters how we remember a traumatic incident, making it appear as though it is happening right now, and triggers a cascade of psychological and physiological responses such as dissociation, panic, and fight/flight/freeze. 19

2. It has an impact on our ability to reintegrate after a stressful occurrence. 

We may disintegrate or fall apart if anything dreadful happens. We must “re-integrate” the experience into our lives and find meaning in it in order to heal.

With PTSD, reintegration is impossible. Victims are left with long-term cognitive, neurological, and psycho-emotional disorder that cannot be resolved without treatment.

Trauma affects our physical well-being.

People who have experienced trauma may experience bodily problems such as:

Hormonal issues, such as an overactive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a hormonal feedback loop that is highly sensitive to factors such as energy supply and stress.

Sex hormones, cortisol, and even brain neurotransmitters can become out of balance when the HPA axis is hyperactive. The body could issue an alert or just shut down the factory. 20

Increased inflammation, as measured by biomarkers like C-reactive protein and inflammatory cytokines, possibly as a result of an overactive HPA axis. 21,22

This could explain why childhood trauma is linked to an increased risk of health problems such as heart disease, cancer, liver illness, and more. 23

Chronic illnesses, particularly autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, chronic tiredness, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and allergies, are more common in those who have experienced trauma. 24

Unexplained discomfort, such as a lingering ache or tightness that doesn’t seem to be related to anything.

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Surprisingly, the combination of stress, HPA axis/hormone dysregulation, and inflammation can actually make pain seem worse. 25,26 You know how when you’re stressed out, everything hurts even more? This is one of the reasons for this.

The Bohr effect and pain, stressed and aching

We tend to inhale quickly and forcibly when we’re physically agitated, such as after a strenuous workout. Exhales get faster as well.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is removed from the bloodstream when we do this.

This is a significant body reaction. It aids in the removal of waste products produced during exercise and allows us to provide new oxygen to our muscles.

The Bohr effect is a dynamic link between blood CO2 and blood oxygen concentrations. 27

However, if you’re sitting motionless and something unpleasant occurs, you can notice a similar shift in your breathing—deep inhales and brief exhales. (Imagine someone having a panic attack and hyperventilating.)

There’s no additional oxygen demand in your muscles when you’re sitting still. If this occurs on a regular basis, the following series of events may occur:

• CO2 levels in your blood will be lower.
• CO2 levels in the blood are reduced, which reduces the quantity of oxygen in your muscles.
• This changes the way you make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy source for muscles.
• Changes in ATP production cause muscles to contract and relax differently, raising baseline tension.
• You may have chronic tightness as a result of your muscles’ inability to fully relax.

Postural muscles, such as those in the lower back, neck, and shoulders, are particularly prone to stiffness. People living with trauma may have pain as a result of prolonged muscle tension in addition to enhanced pain perception.

What’s the good news?

Learning to breathe more efficiently can help relieve the tension created by disordered breathing habits.

Longer exhales, in particular, can aid in the delivery of more oxygen to the muscles, allowing them to relax.

Jump down to helping clients gain self-regulation to discover more about breathing drills and why they work.

Trauma has the ability to alter our eating, exercise, and health behaviors.

There’s a good possibility that something happened to people who have struggled with their eating and exercise habits for years or decades, particularly with obesity or disordered eating behaviors. It doesn’t even have to be something “significant.”

Clients with a history of trauma may:

• Overeating and/or binge eating. 28 For a while, losing themselves in a binge can block out the rest of the world.
• After they believe they’ve overeaten, they compensate. They may fast, purge, or over-exercise. 29 Endorphins released during a strenuous workout, as well as those released during bingeing and purging, may provide a momentary high.
• Control and limit their food intake. In fact, they may alternate between losing control and doing so. 30
• Make stringent “rules” with severe repercussions. “I have to work out two hours a day or else I’m a lazy walrus,” for example.
• Do things that appear to be ambiguous or conflicting. It’s like going on a diet in the morning and then binge eating at night. Keeping trigger foods on hand to “test themselves,” even if they frequently “fail,” is another option.
• Around food, you may “check out” or have “brain fog.” Like, “I don’t know what occurred, but the bag of chips was empty when I woke up.” Or, “When I try to decide what to do, I become immobilized.” It’s completely overwhelming.” “I guess I’m just not motivated,” for example.

The more severe and/or frequent the trauma in a person’s life, the more likely they are to develop physical symptoms as well as maladaptive behaviors, thoughts, and beliefs.

One study looked at the association between BMI and trauma history over time. The graph provides a fascinating tale.

The more a person’s PTSD symptoms, the more likely they were to gain weight over time.

Another investigation looked into the link between exercise tolerance and childhood abuse.

Women who had been abused were more inclined to avoid exercise, according to researchers, because the increased heart rate and feeling “amped up” invoked the same sentiments of dread and fear they’d felt earlier in their lives. 32

Trauma has the ability to transform us for the better.

We may experience approximately 50 distinct things at once and not have them be inconsistent as human beings. We’re a complicated bunch.

Post-traumatic stress disorder can make us feel terrible, but it doesn’t mean we can’t evolve.

A person may lose everything, but then have that “screw it” moment when they review their lives and decide to discard some junk and clutter. One sort of post-traumatic growth is this.

As a result of trauma, we adapt and evolve in positive and healthy ways, which is known as post-traumatic growth. 

It frequently entails deducing meaning from our suffering. For example, we might make a promise to assist others in similar situations.

Consider kintsugi, a style of Japanese pottery made from broken ceramics, when thinking about post-traumatic growth. Artists reassemble the fragments using precious metals, and the mended item is considered more beautiful and coveted than the original—especially since the procedure takes so long.

If you know how to spot trauma in your customers, you might just be able to assist them in getting back on their feet. They might find significance in their experiences. Or perhaps you’ll discover the beauty in the process of rebuilding.

There are seven techniques to assist your clients in breaking the cycle.

#1: Become familiar with the indicators of trauma.

The good news is that you’ve already done it by reading this post!

It’s important to note that learning the indications of trauma isn’t for the purpose of diagnosing your clients. As previously said, that would be a task for a licensed therapist. So, unless you’re one of them, it’s critical to keep inside your coach’s scope of practice.

Knowing what trauma looks like, on the other hand, can assist you:

• Help your clients and don’t re-traumatize them.
• When a client’s behavior doesn’t seem to make sense, don’t get frustrated.
• when it’s time to seek help from a mental health professional

Prepare yourself by learning how to handle challenging topics with tact.

Consider the following resources if you wish to do some more research:

#2: Reiterate the legitimacy of people’s emotions.

“It’s no big problem,” don’t say. It is, without a doubt, to them.

Don’t say, “I absolutely understand.” You don’t have it.

“Get over it,” don’t say. They won’t be able to do it without assistance.

Don’t avoid the subject by saying nothing because it’s too unpleasant or you’re at a loss for words.

“I’m sorry for what you’re going through,” say instead. Thank you for entrusting this to me. I’m here to listen and to help.”

#3: Set and stick to boundaries.

Don’t become a caregiver for your clients, even if you care about them. Determine where you can assist and where you cannot.

At, we’ve developed a code of ethics for coaches as well as best practices for establishing healthy client boundaries.

Make sure you understand these topics. They’re vital for all clients, but they can assist traumatized clients build a sense of safety.

You should pay special attention to the following points:

• To give off nice, non-threatening signals, use open, non-confrontational body language.
• Using a kind but professional speech tone.
• If your coaching methods necessitate physical contact, get agreement early and often.

The importance of the last point cannot be overstated.

It can be unpleasant to bring it up, which is why many instructors avoid doing so. Don’t be one of those individuals.

The rules are straightforward:

• Ask a customer, “Is it acceptable if I touch you here, like this?” if you want to touch them. Use hand gestures to convey your message.
• Ask yourself, “Is it acceptable if I withdraw my hands now?” before removing your hand(s) from a supportive position (such as helping to place their rib cage during a pushup).

Asking about removing your hands may seem weird, but doing so without asking might make a person with body-related trauma feel particularly exposed.

When a client is asked these questions, they gain control over what occurs to their body. They have control over who touches them, how they are touched, and when they are touched. That’s how it should be all the time.

#4: Explain the trauma response if your client is open to it.

It can be beneficial to share what happens throughout the trauma reaction with a client who has acknowledged trauma. 

Why? People are frequently perplexed by what is occurring to them.

It’s a revelation to realize that what they’re going through is a physiological reaction to something that happened in the past.

It’s certainly worth the effort to explain that their brain and body have developed a response pattern, and that what’s happening to them and their health problems are not their fault.

It’s not because your customer lacks willpower or bought the “wrong” groceries that they go blank in front of the fridge.

This understanding might have a significant impact on the client’s self-definition. They realize they aren’t a bad person, or that they aren’t lazy, or that they lack self-control. They’re simply repeating a pattern they’ve known for a long time.

#5: Assist clients in learning to relax.

This is a valuable skill that anyone can acquire or teach. Here are three ideas to consider.

Inhaling from a balloon

“How you breathe and what your brain is teaching your body to do have a physical relationship,” explains Craig Weller, CPT, PN Master Coach and resident exercise specialist. Exhaling causes the brain to send parasympathetic signals, which slows the heart rate slightly.

You can spend a little longer time in the parasympathetic, calm-down state by lengthening your exhale. 

Exhale slowly and deeply, as if you’re blowing up a balloon:

• Slowly exhale for many seconds. If you want, you can count 1-2-3-4-5.
• Take a few moments to pause. Feel free to count once more.
• Then, deliberately relax and allow the in-breath to occur naturally.
• Repeat.

Breathing with your core engaged

Varied placements of your spine have different affects on your neurological system via physical pressure sensors known as ganglia.

Extending your spine (like in yoga’s upward dog) triggers sympathetic receptors, triggering the “fight or flight” response.

Flexing your spine, on the other hand, relieves pressure on the spinal ganglia, resulting in a relaxing effect (think fetal position or a puppy enjoying a lovely nap). Long exhales in this position with your ribs and core relieve the pressure even further.

To consider, there are two types of core-engaged breathing: fetal position breathing and ribs-down breathing.

Exercises to bring you back to your feet.

These can assist a client who is having trouble “checking out” by focusing their attention on specific bodily sensations.

Grounding exercises include the following:

• Concentrate on how your feet feel on the floor.
• Feeling the barbell in your hands is a great feeling.
• Take a whiff of the medicine ball you’re holding.

#6: Be prepared with a referral network.

You may not be able to (or should not be able to) meet all of your clients’ needs on your own.

Keep a list of mental health practitioner recommendations on hand. These can be folks you know from your neighborhood or people you found via study. Here are some suggestions if you’re not sure where to begin:

Make a list and keep it with you at all times. Use our recommendation worksheet to get started.

Remember that referring a client out does not imply you cease seeing them. While they receive specialist help in another area, you can continue to assist them in their health practices.

#7: Serve, but keep it safe.

There is no way around it. This is serious business.

You may have been through trauma and are coping with issues that are very similar to those that your client is going with.

Many people prefer to work with a coach rather than a therapist for a variety of reasons, including a lack of health insurance and the stigma associated with mental illness.

While you should keep your limits with clients and stay within your scope of practice, there will be instances when you are a client’s sole confidante.

Therapists, on the other hand, have something coaches don’t usually have: supervision and advisors. They meet with other therapists on a regular basis to discuss cases, share advice, and receive support.

You may accomplish something similar as a coach by interacting with like-minded coaches on a regular basis. Get the help you need.

Difficult subjects can be exhausting. As a result, make sure that you charge your own battery.

Because your health is equally vital.

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11. Esenwa, C., Ilunga Tshiswaka, D., Gebregziabher, M., and Ovbiagele, B. Historical slavery and current stroke mortality in the United States. Stroke Belt is a belt that is worn around the waist. Stroke. February 2018;49(2):465-9.

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Trauma is known to be a contributing factor to many diseases. The primary reason trauma can cause health issues is because of the long-term effects of the stress and anxiety experienced during the trauma. The brain can be affected in a number of ways, and many of these ways cause changes in the body. When the trauma is hard to deal with, the brain will cause the body to react in ways that are unhealthy. In most cases, these changes can cause or contribute to an illness. When trauma is experienced during one’s life, it can cause many different things. This article will discuss some of the long-term effects of trauma and how trauma can affect health and fitness.. Read more about health and fitness articles 2023 and let us know what you think.

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Trauma can cause damage to the brain, heart, lungs, and other organs. It can also lead to psychological trauma that may affect a persons mental health.”}},{“@type”:”Question”,”name”:”What are 3 physical effects trauma can cause on the body?”,”acceptedAnswer”:{“@type”:”Answer”,”text”:”
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Frequently Asked Questions

How does trauma affect physical health?

Trauma can cause damage to the brain, heart, lungs, and other organs. It can also lead to psychological trauma that may affect a persons mental health.

What are 3 physical effects trauma can cause on the body?

Physical effects trauma can cause on the body include but are not limited to: 1. Traumatic brain injury 2. Broken bones 3. Internal bleeding

What are the 4 effects of trauma?

The 4 effects of trauma are the following: 1. Physical pain 2. Emotional distress 3. Cognitive difficulties 4. Behavioral changes

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